Emergence and Expansion of Islam: With Reference to Christian Muslim Relations in Early Centuries
Abstract
With the establishment of Islamic state Prophet Muhammad ﷺ wrote letters to various heads of the states and chiefs of the tribes and invited them to embrace Islam. The expansion of Islam especially in Christian world was started during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ himself that continued in later centuries. Under the pious caliphate the Christian land of Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa, Azerbaijan, Armenia, parts of Asia Minor and some European islands came under Muslim control. In this period the Muslim navy was built, ending the Roman supremacy on sea. Expansion of Islamic world both in the East and the West was accomplished under Umayyad and Muslim armies attempted thrice to conquer Constantinople, the Byzantine capital. The consolidation of Muslim power was completed by Abd al- Malik by defeating and crushing the joint Roman and Berber army, further annexing North Africa. Along with Sindh and Central Asia, the Christian Spain was conquered and ruled for about eight centuries by various dynasties. The hostility between Abbasid and Byzantine was resumed by caliph al- Mahdi and continued till Mu’tasim. Many Byzantine areas of Asia Minor were invaded, and were also forced to pay tribute. Keeping in view the enmity with Umayyad of Spain the Abbasid established friendly relations with the Franks. Under Aghlabid Muslim rule was further expanded to Sicily, parts of Italy and many European Islands. In response of the Muslim supremacy over the Christians and due to the Muslim threat to the Byzantine Empire along with the other reasons the Christians of Europe united on the call of Pope Urban II and started crusade war in 1095 against the Muslims of the East. They conquered the various areas of the Arab East and established their Christian states there. In the Eight crusade wars fought on the Arab Land between the Muslims and Christians the later wars were either fruitless for the Christians or were in favour of the Muslims. The Zangid, the Ayyubid and the Mamluks proved to be the champions who not only defeated the crusaders but also re-conquered their lost areas. Finally these crusaders were driven out of the Arab land by the Mamluks in 1291 marking an end of Crusade wars.References
Prof. Masudul Hasan, History of Islam (Revised Edition), 2002, New Delhi: Adam Publishers and Distributers, Vol. I, p. 69
Ibid., p. 71
Maulana Akbar Shah Khan Najeebabadi, History of Islam (tr. & ed. by Ateequr Rahman Uganwi), 2007, New Delhi: Adam Publishers and Distributers, Vol. I, p. 317
Sayyid Fayyaz Mahmood, A Short History of Islam, 1960, Karachi: Oxford University Press, p. 40
Prof. Masudul Hasan, op. cit., p. 110 and Maulana Akbar Shah Khan Najeebabadi, op. cit., p. 453
Maulana Akbar Shah Khan Najeebabadi, op. cit., pp. 495-497
P. K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, (tenth edition), 2002, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 161
K. Ali, A Study of Islamic History, 2011, New Delhi: Adam Publishers and Distributers, p. 121
Prof. Masudul Hasan, op. cit., pp. 121-122
P. K. Hitti, op. cit., p. 199
K. Ali, op. cit., p. 157; Sayyid Fayyaz Mahmood, op. cit., p. 71
Sayyid Fayyaz Mahmood, op. cit., p. 77
Kahina who claimed to be a magician, surrounded around her a large number of Berber followers. She and her followers stood as a force against the Muslim occupation of North Africa
Sayyid Fayyaz Mahmood, op. cit., pp. 78-81; Maulana Akbar Shah Khan Najeebabadi, op. cit., Vol II, pp. 207-209
P. K. Hitti, op. cit., p. 549, Sayyid Fayyaz Mahmood, op. cit., p. 194
Ibid., p. 298
Sayyid Fayyaz Mahmood, op. cit., p. 105
P. K. Hitti, op. cit., p. 300
Ibid., p. 602
Prof. Masudul Hasan, op. cit., p. 588; P. K. Hitti, op. cit., pp. 604-605
Yahya Armajani and Thomas M. Ricks, Middle East: Past and Present (Second Edition),1986, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, p.99
Ibid. p. 101
P. K. Hitti., op. cit., p. 636
Kenneth M. Setton, (Editor-in-Chief), A History of the Crusades, 1955, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, p. 254
P. K. Hitti., op. cit., pp. 643 – 644; Sayyid Fayyaz Mahmood, op. cit., p. 227
Sayyid Fayyaz Mahmood, op. cit., p. 228
P. K. Hitti., op. cit., p. 648
Aziz S. Atiya, Crusade, Commerce and Culture, 1962, London: Oxford University Press, p. 79
Ibid
P. K. Hitti, op. cit., p.651
Ibid., p. 654
Kenneth M. Setton, op. cit., p. 590
P. K. Hitti, op. cit., p. 658
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